Can Human Rights Be Universal When Race, Gender and Class Shape Who Receives Protection?

The central issue in this research paper is not whether human rights should apply to everyone, but whether the universality claim remains meaningful when political institutions treat people differently.

Consider a migrant facing racial discrimination at a border, a woman whose legal rights are difficult to enforce, and a low-income worker unable to challenge unfair treatment because legal action is unaffordable. Each may hold the same formal rights, yet the ability to exercise them can differ.

To answer the question of how the universality claim of human rights matters, distinguish between universal entitlement and unequal enforcement. Race raises questions about whose rights states recognise; gender exposes gaps between equality in law and protection in practice; class challenges the assumption that legal rights alone overcome economic disadvantage.

Universality matters because a shared standard can be used to challenge unequal treatment. Its credibility depends on whether that standard protects people across racial, gender and class divisions rather than merely declaring everyone equal.